history of aesthetics

The history of beauty is as old as mankind itself - throughout history people have tried to improve their attractiveness and to enhance their beauty. 1 (1953), 68–94; Scott Elledge, "The Background and Development in English Criticism of the Theories of Generality and Particularity," in PMLA, Vol. In Hume, the tendency of ideas to consort with one another because of similarity, propinquity, or causal connection became a powerful principle for explaining many mental operations; and Hartley carried the method further. A basis is thus laid for a nonrelativistic standard of judgment, and variations in actual preference are explained away as due to different expectations with which the beautiful object, in art or nature, is approached. 43 (1961), 97–113; Clarence D. Thorpe, "Addison and Hutcheson on the Imagination," in ELH: A Journal of English Literary History, Vol. See Edgar de Bruyne, Etudes d'esthétique médiévale, 3 vols. In its extreme forms, as reflected, for example, in Oscar Wilde (Intentions, 1891) and J. Goodness is one of the "transcendentals" in his metaphysics, being predicable of every being and cutting across the Aristotelian categories; it is Being considered in relation to desire (Summa Theologica I, q. (In this entry, no distinction will be attempted between Plato's views and those of Socrates.). In Cassian's example (Collationes xiv, 8), Jerusalem, in the Old Testament, is, "literally" or "historically," the city of the Jews; on the "allegorical," or what came to be called the "typical," level, it refers prophetically to the later church of Christ; on the "tropological," or moral, level, to the individual soul; on the "anagogical" level, to the heavenly City of God. A homogeneous thing, like a patch of color, is already unified by similarity throughout; a heterogeneous thing, like a house or ship, is unified by the dominance of the form, which is a divine thought (I, vi, 2). BORN: 1811, Tarbes, France In many cases, art aims to produce repose and relief for those exhausted with labor, or distraught with grief, or laden with misery, or struck by austere times. As in other areas, the search for clarity of concept, rigor of deduction, and intuitive certainty of basic principles penetrated the realm of critical theory, and its effects can be traced in numerous works, for example, in Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux's L'art poétique (1674); in Alexander Pope's Essay on Criticism (1711); in Charles Du Fresnoy's De Arte Graphica (translated into French by Roger de Piles, 1668, into English by Dryden, 1695); and in Jean Philippe Rameau's Traité de l'harmonie réduite à ses principes naturels (1722). Thus Aristotle is interpreted as having a further theory, not about the immediate pleasure of tragedy but about its deeper psychological effects. He took pains to define the boundaries of poetry and upon the ends and appliances of art. See Richard Rudner, "On Semiotic Aesthetics," in Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, Vol. cheerfulness, sadness, awe) awakened by the object. (Berlin, 1960); Erwin Panofsky, The Codex Huygens and Leonardo da Vinci's Art Theory (London, 1940); Erwin Panofsky, The Life and Art of Albrecht Dürer, 4th ed. (1833), and the writings of the German and French romantics. From the late 17th to the early 20th century Western aesthetics underwent a slow revolution into what is often called modernism. [5] The work most crucial to aesthetics as a strand of philosophy is the first half of his Critique of the Power of Judgment, the Critique of the Aesthetic Power of Judgment. Plato shows the aesthetic consequences of the thinking on this problem by Democritus and Parmenides. They are scattered throughout his dialogues, but the principal discussions are in (a ) the Ion, Symposium, and Republic, belonging to Plato's early, pre-Academy period (roughly 399–387 BCE); (b ) the Sophist and Laws, written at the end of his life (roughly 367–348/347 BCE); and (c ) the Phaedrus, which lies between these periods. A. Richards), has also been investigated by introspective methods. His conception of the sublime, suggested by the etymology of the word, emphasizes the element of height in objects. 4 (1937), 245–264; Martin Kallich, "The Association of Ideas and Critical Theory: Hobbes, Locke, and Addison," in ELH: A Journal of English Literary History, Vol. This is another basic fact about the arts, in Plato's view; they can embody in various degrees the quality of beauty (to kalon —a term that can branch out into more general senses of appropriateness or fitness to function but that often appears in a more strictly aesthetic sense). See Clarence DeWitt Thorpe, The Aesthetic Theory of Thomas Hobbes (Ann Arbor, MI, 1940); Donald F. Bond, "The Neo-classical Psychology of the Imagination," in ELH: A Journal of English Literary History, Vol. Any aesthetic doctrines that guided the production and interpretation of prehistoric art are mostly unknown. The sense of beauty does not depend on judgment or reflection; it does not respond to intellectual or utilitarian features of the world, nor does it depend on association of ideas. The term "Islamic" refers not only to the religion, but to any form of art created by people in an Islamic culture or in an Islamic context, whether the artist is Islamic or not. Third, aesthetic satisfaction is evoked by an object that is purposive in its form, though in fact it has no purpose or function: because of a certain wholeness, it looks as though it were somehow made to be understood (§10; cf. 4 (1943), 392–400; S. C. Pepper, "The Concept of Fusion in Dewey's Aesthetic Theory," in Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, Vol. 105 et seq., and Bd. On the other hand, a work of art that embodies beauty has some direct relation to one form. The beauty which is spread over the face of visible nature is an emanation from this spiritual beauty, and is beauty because it symbolizes and expresses the latter. Shaftesbury's philosophy was basically Neoplatonic, but to emphasize the immediacy of our impression of beauty, and also to underline his view that the harmony perceived as beauty is also perceived as virtue, Shaftesbury gave the name "moral sense" to that "inward eye" that grasps harmony in both its aesthetic and ethical forms. If it is correct, Aristotle has no therapeutic theory of tragedy at all, but he may still be replying to Plato that the immoral effects of tragedy are not to be feared, since the finest ones, at least, will have to show a kind of moral progress if they are to be structurally capable of moving the spectator tragically. Nor are the arts to be neglected, on the ground that they are mere imitations (here he comes closest to correcting the Republic, Book X), for both the painting and the object it copies are, after all, both imitations of the ideal-form; moreover, the painter may be able to imitate form all the more truly, to "add where nature is lacking" (V, viii, 1; cf. See Émile Krantz, Essai sur l'esthétique de Descartes (Paris, 1882); Brewster Rogerson, "The Art of Painting the Passions," in Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. So all imitation is in a sense both true and untrue, has both being and nonbeing (Sophist 240c). This was enough to support growth and grow food. The philosophy of dialectical materialism formulated by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels contained, at the start, only the basic principle of an aesthetics, whose implications have been drawn out and developed by Marxist theoreticians over more than half a century. He does not develop this point and may be postulating a kind of decorative impulse. The written letters undergo a slight external change according to their position within a word. Therefore, symmetry is neither a necessary nor sufficient condition of beauty. The feeling of the sublime, to begin with, involves a degree of horror—controlled horror—the mind being held and filled by what it contemplates (II, 1). 20, No. George Santayana, for example, in his Reason in Art (1903; Vol. Both seem to have held that beauty depends on the arrangement of parts (convenientia partium, in Cicero's phrase). For example, the appearance (not necessarily the actuality) of convenience or utility explains why many objects are esteemed beautiful (III, iii, 1). Political, economic, and social changes in the nineteenth century, in the wake of the French Revolution and the rise of modern industry, raised in a new form the Platonic problem of the artists' relation to their society, their possibly conflicting obligations to their craft and to their fellow human beings. First, there is "integrity or perfection" (integritas sive perfectio )—broken or injured objects, incomplete objects, are ugly. The investigation of the psychological effects of art and of the aesthetic experience (in modern terms) developed along two distinct, but occasionally intersecting, paths: (1) the search for an adequate analysis and explanation of certain basic aesthetic qualities (the beautiful, the sublime) or (2) an inquiry into the nature and justification of critical judgment, the problem of "taste." (See also Schelling's Werke, Bd. Saint Thomas Aquinas's aesthetic is probably the most famous and influential theory among medieval authors, having been the subject of much scrutiny in the wake of the neo-Scholastic revival of the late 19th and early 20th centuries and even having received the approbation of the celebrated Modernist writer, James Joyce. The painter, Alberti argued (in his Della pittura, 1436), requires a special talent and skill; he needs a liberal education and a knowledge of human affairs and human nature; he must be a scientist, in order to follow the laws of nature and produce accurate representations of natural events and human actions. Hence his viewpoint can be paraphrased as "That which constitutes aesthetics lies outside the realm of the language game". [6], Wilde toured the United States in 1882 spreading the idea of Aesthetics in a speech called "The English Renaissance". Since tragedy is an imitation of a special sort of object, namely fearful and pitiable events, its proper pleasure "is the pleasure that comes from pity and fear by means of imitation" (Ch. The technical basis for many of nowadays procedures like lipoplasty, breast augmentation or rhinoplasty was thereby initiated more than a hundred years ago and evolved to the modern standards of today. The aesthetic problem is also treated by two other philosophers whose thought set out from certain tendencies in Kant's system, namely Schopenhauer and Herbart. Therefore, that information is unavailable for most Encyclopedia.com content. History of Aesthetics 5 Small wonder then that the public should show little concern whether such art thrives or not. Marx himself, in his Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859), pointed out that there is no simple one-to-one correspondence between the character of a society and its art. 4 (1945), 290–315; R. L. Brett, The Third Earl of Shaftesbury (London, 1951); Jerome Stolnitz, "On the Significance of Lord Shaftesbury in Modern Aesthetic Theory," in Philosophical Quarterly, Vol. The imitative art divides into (1) the art of imitating visual appearances by means of color and drawing and (2) the art of poetry, the imitation of a human action (praxis ) through verse, song, and dance (Poetics, Ch. Baumgarten's book is remarkably concise, and its formalized deductive manner, with definitions and derivations, goes out of its way to declare the possibility of dealing in an acceptably rigorous Cartesian way with matters apparently so little suited for rigorous treatment. By this route, Plato approaches the question that is of great importance to him as a metaphysician: Do the arts contain, or convey, knowledge? The history of ancient Greek aesthetics covers centuries, and during this time numerous nuanced arguments and positions were developed. Knowledge (episteme ), as distinct from mere opinion (doxa ), is a grasp of the eternal forms; and Plato clearly denies it to the arts, as imitations of imitations (Republic 598–601). They were greatly interested in the psychology of art (though they were not merely psychologists), especially the creative process and the effects of art upon the beholder. He seeks to prove the universality of this sense of beauty, by showing that all men, in proportion to the enlargement of their intellectual capacity, are more delighted with uniformity than the opposite. Some empiricists emphasize the first type of question and have called for a "scientific aesthetics" to state aesthetic problems in such a way that the results of psychological inquiry can be brought to bear upon them. pp. So far as his writings embody the notion of any common element in beautiful objects, it is proportion, harmony or unity among their parts. [8] The oldest surviving complete Sanskrit manuscript that discusses a theory of aesthetics is of Natya Shastra, estimated to have been complete between 200 BCE and 200 CE. [8] Yet entertainment is an effect, but not the primary goal of arts according to Natya shastra. The main lines of reflection about literature during the Roman period seem to have been practical and pedagogical. By beautifying the outward aspects of life, one would beautify the inner ones." No special sense is required; the principles of association explain everything. See Herbert Spiegelberg, The Phenomenological Movement: A Historical Introduction, 2 vols. After the Revolution, there ensued a period of vigorous and free debate in Russia among various groups of Marxists and others (e.g., the formalists, see below). He begins by considering influential ancient Greek and Roman concepts before seeking out the aesthetic consciousness of the middle ages. These possibilities have only begun to be worked out, for example, in Heidegger's paper "Der Ursprung des Kunstwerkes" (in Holzwege, 1950) and in a recent book by Arturo B. Fallico, Art and Existentialism (1962). Matter in itself is ugly. The English translation of 1970-74 is a rare masterpiece. 10. 409, 411–421) conceived taste as simply the capacity to discern those three qualities that give rise to "the pleasures of the imagination," greatness (that is, sublimity), uncommonness (novelty), and beauty. 5, art. 2, 111–121; Ibid., No. From the start, these developments were accompanied by reflection on the nature of the arts themselves, and they led in time to fundamental changes in prevailing views about the arts. It signifies a whole family of qualities, for each thing is beautiful in its own way (Aquinas, Commentary on the Psalms, Psalm xliv, 2; cf. First, there is the enjoyability of art. In the Poetics he adds another essential, namely, a certain magnitude; the object should not be too large, while clearness of perception requires that it should not be too small. Do you have any metal implants under the area being treated? It is this that puts him in the "tribe of imitators" (Timaeus 19d) and allies him with those pseudo craftsmen of the Gorgias (463–465) who do not possess a genuine craft, like medicine, but a pseudo craft, or knack (tribē ), like cosmetics, which gives us the bloom of health rather than health itself. Thus the beauty of a plant resides in its perfect adaptation to its end, a perfection which is an expression of the wisdom of its Creator. Kant denied that there are any suchprinciples (Kant 1790, 101), but both Hutcheson and Hume affirmedtheir existence: they maintaine… The idea of the work of art as being, in some sense (in some one of many possible senses), a symbol, a sensuous embodiment of a spiritual meaning, though old in essence, as we have seen, came into a new prominence in the romantic period. In this view, man's world is determined, in fundamental ways, by the very symbolic forms in which he represents it to himself; so, for example, the primitive world of myth is necessarily different from that of science or art. One solution to the problem was to think of the artist as a person with a calling of his own, whose whole, or at least primary, obligation is to perfect his work, especially its formal beauty, whatever society may expect. He suggests that it originally connoted the pleasure of colour. Meanwhile, anthropological interest in classical and primitive mythology, which became scientific in the nineteenth century, led to another semiotical way of looking at art, particularly literature. Therefore its pleasures are to be condemned for their unworthy effect on character. 16 Oct. 2020 . 14, 15); and Stephen C. Pepper, Aesthetic Quality (1937), The Basis of Criticism in the Arts (1945), The Work of Art (1955). Such pleasure is more than mere agreeableness, since it must be disinterested and free — that is to say independent from the object's ability to serve as a means to an end. See G. F. Else, Aristotle's Poetics: The Argument (Cambridge, 1957); S. H. Butcher, Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine Art, 4th ed. 39, art. Aesthetics From Classical Greece to the Present: A Short History. 62, No. Aristotle explains that men "will be better able to achieve [their] good if [they] develop a fuller understanding of what it is to flourish. The forms of typical beauty are:-- (1) infinity, the type of the divine incomprehensibility; (2) unity, the type of the divine comprehensiveness; (3) repose, the type of the divine permanence; (4) symmetry, the type of the divine justice; (5) purity, the type of the divine energy; and (6) moderation, the type of government by law. Refer to each style’s convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates. Published originally in Polish in 1962-7, it achieved bestseller status and acclaim as the best work of its kind in the world. He applies his conception in a suggestive way to classical tragedy. The endeavour to determine with a like degree of precision the physiological conditions of the pleasurable effects of colours and their combinations by E. W. Brucke, Ewald Hering and more recent investigators, has so far failed to realize the desideratum laid down by Herbart, that there should be a theory of colour-relations equal in completeness and exactness to that of tone-relations. II–II, q. He begins by considering influential ancient Greek and Roman concepts before seeking out the aesthetic consciousness of the middle ages. 30, No. Love (Eros) produces aspiration towards this pure idea. 5, art. The concept of the aesthetic descends from the concept of taste. The second is Freudian psychology, beginning with Freud's interpretation of Hamlet (Interpretation of Dreams, 1900) and his studies of Leonardo (1910) and Dostoyevsky (1928), which have illuminated the nature of art creation and appreciation. 2 (1958), 73–90; T. B. L. Webster, "Greek Theories of Art and Literature down to 400 BC" in Classical Quarterly, Vol. In this very fertile period of aesthetic investigation, many other writers, of various degrees of sophistication, contributed to the theory of beauty and sublimity and to the foundations of taste. 5; Maurice de Wulf, Études historiques sur l'esthétique de S. Thomas d'Aquin (Louvain, 1896); Leonard Callahan, A Theory of Esthetic According to the Principles of St. Thomas Aquinas (Washington, DC, 1927); Bernard F. Huppé, Doctrine and Poetry (Albany, NY, 1959), Chs. Rasa is an ancient concept in Indian arts about the aesthetic flavor of any visual, literary or musical work, that evokes an emotion or feeling in the reader or audience, but that cannot be described. In De Amore (his commentary on the Symposium, written 1474–1475) and in his principal work, the Theologia Platonica, Ficino took over a number of the leading aesthetic notions of the Greeks and of St. Augustine, and to them he added one of his most original ideas, a theory of contemplation based on Plato's Phaedo. 7 (1927), 444–450; Hoyt Trowbridge, "The Place of Rules in Dryden's Criticism," in Modern Philology, Vol. His opponent Mozi, however, argued that music and fine arts were classist and wasteful, benefiting the rich over the poor. But the validation of the synthetic a priori judgment of taste requires something more searching, namely, a transcendental deduction. 33, No. Contrary to popular belief, it IS possible (and actually very common) to be able to blend the aesthetics on this Wiki together to create your own unique aesthetic because, frankly, we're humans. 1). The solution is that no determinate concept is involved in such judgments, but only the indeterminate concept of the supersensible, or thing-in-itself that underlies the object as well as the judging subject (§§56–57). Kant's system requires that there be a dialectic of taste with an antinomy to be dissolved on the principles of critical philosophy. It was, however, Leo Tolstoy who drove the social view of art to its farthest point in the nineteenth century and issued the most fundamental challenge to art's right to exist. The Nok culture is testimony to this. 2, No. He emphasizes unity in its simplest aspect as seen in evenness of line and purity of color. Karen Appold. In recent years the search for "archetypal patterns" in all literature, to help explain its power, has been carried on by many critics and has become an accepted part of literary criticism. When both are given a form, it is called art. New York: Johnson, Fry and Company, 1869-1871.Athens from the Ilysus, 380. 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( Princeton, NJ, 1955 ), Auguste Comte ( Discours l'ensemble... The Earliest source of formal aesthetic considerations, translated by R. B. Haldane, esp aesthetics art! Extreme tendency to fill the mind, intellectual and moral than history is relative to the of. Tendency of the words in several eighteenth-century attempts to explain the pleasures of art in the nineteenth century, in. Their own distinctive mediums and diversely cultivated as in the twentieth century,... Written letters undergo a slight external change according to their neighbours, others to the Vedic era texts Hinduism. Withdraws to some extent, the soul 's intuition of the beautiful as coincident with the spirit of,. Device required the industry has evolved Coleridge 's Biographia Literaria, 1817.! Better, why does he do this are perceived by reason to be sure, his. Poetry to be considered invisible vital force fill the mind with a delightful horror. and clarified Croce 's point! 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